Malaysia
Culture
Name
Malaysian
Alternative
Names
Outsiders often mistakenly refer to things Malaysian as simply
"Malay," reflecting only one of the ethnic groups in the society.
Malaysians refer to their national culture as kebudayaan Malaysia in
the national language.
Orientation
Identification. Within
Malaysian society there is a Malay culture, a Chinese culture, an Indian
culture, a Eurasian culture, along with the cultures of the indigenous groups
of the peninsula and north Borneo. A unified Malaysian culture is something
only emerging in the country. The important social distinction in the emergent
national culture is between Malay and non-Malay, represented by two groups: the
Malay elite that dominates the country's politics, and the largely Chinese
middle class whose prosperous lifestyle leads Malaysia's shift to a consumer
society. The two groups mostly live in the urban areas of the Malay Peninsula's
west coast, and their sometimes competing, sometimes parallel influences shape
the shared life of Malaysia's citizens. Sarawak and Sabah, the two Malaysian
states located in north Borneo, tend to be less a influential part of the
national culture, and their vibrant local cultures are shrouded by the bigger,
wealthier peninsular society.
Location and Geography. Malaysia
is physically split between west and east, parts united into one country in
1963. Western Malaysia is on the southern tip of the Malay peninsula, and
stretches from the Thai border to the island of Singapore. Eastern Malaysia
includes the territories of Sabah and Sarawak on the north end of Borneo,
separated by the country of Brunei. Peninsular Malaysia is divided into west
and east by a central mountain range called the Banjaran Titiwangsa. Most large
cities, heavy industry, and immigrant groups are concentrated on the west
coast; the east coast is less populated, more agrarian, and demographically
more Malay. The federal capital is in the old tinmining center of Kuala Lumpur,
located in the middle of the western immigrant belt, but its move to the new
Kuala Lumpur suburb of Putra Jaya will soon be complete.
Demography. Malaysia's
population comprises twenty-three million people, and throughout its history
the territory has been sparsely populated relative to its land area. The
government aims for increasing the national population to seventy million by
the year 2100. Eighty percent of the population lives on the peninsula. The
most important Malaysian demographic statistics are of ethnicity: 60 percent
are classified as Malay, 25 percent as of Chinese descent, 10 percent of Indian
descent, and 5 percent as others.
These population figures have an important place in peninsular history,
because Malaysia as a country was created with demography in mind. Malay
leaders in the 1930s and 1940s organized their community around the issue of
curbing immigration. After independence, Malaysia was created when the Borneo
territories with their substantial indigenous populations were added to Malaya
as a means of exceeding the great number of Chinese and Indians in the country.
Linguistic Affiliation. Malay
became Malaysia's sole national language in 1967 and has been institutionalized
with a modest degree of success. The Austronesian language has an illustrious
history as a lingua franca throughout the region, though English is also widely
spoken because it was the administrative language of the British colonizers.
Along with Malay and English other languages are popular: many Chinese Malaysians
speak some combination of Cantonese, Hokkien, and/or Mandarin; most Indian
Malaysians speak Tamil; and numerous languages flourish among aboriginal groups
in the peninsula, especially in Sarawak and Sabah. The Malaysian government
acknowledges this multilingualism through such things as television news
broadcasts in Malay, English, Mandarin, and Tamil. Given their country's
linguistic heterogeneity, Malaysians are adept at learning languages, and
knowing multiple languages is commonplace. Rapid industrialization has
sustained the importance of English and solidified it as the language of
business.
Symbolism. The
selection of official cultural symbols is a source of tension. In such a
diverse society, any national emblem risks privileging one group over another.
For example, the king is the symbol of the state, as well as a sign of Malay
political hegemony. Since ethnic diversity rules out the use of kin or blood
metaphors to stand for Malaysia, the society often emphasizes natural symbols, including
the sea turtle, the hibiscus flower, and the orangutan. The country's economic
products and infrastructure also provide national logos for Malaysia; the
national car (Proton), Malaysia Airlines, and the Petronas Towers (the world's
tallest buildings) have all come to symbolize modern Malaysia. The government
slogan "Malaysia Boleh!" (Malaysia Can!) is meant to encourage even
greater accomplishments. A more humble, informal symbol for society is a salad
calledrojak, a favorite Malaysian snack, whose eclectic mix of
ingredients evokes the population's diversity.
History
and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. The
name Malaysia comes from an old term for the entire Malay archipelago. A
geographically truncated Malaysia emerged out of the territories colonized by
Britain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Britain's
representatives gained varying degrees of control through agreements with the
Malay rulers of the peninsular states, often made by deceit or force. Britain
was attracted to the Malay peninsula by its vast reserves of tin, and later
found that the rich soil was also highly productive for growing rubber trees.
Immigrants from south China and south India came to British Malaya as labor,
while the Malay population worked in small holdings and rice cultivation. What
was to become East Malaysia had different colonial administrations: Sarawak was
governed by a British family, the Brookes (styled as the "White
Rajas"), and Sabah was run by the British North Borneo Company.
Together the cosmopolitan hub of British interests was Singapore, the
central port and center of publishing, commerce, education, and administration.
The climactic event in forming Malaysia was the Japanese occupation of
Southeast Asia from 1942-1945. Japanese rule helped to invigorate a growing
anti-colonial movement, which flourished following the British return after the
war. When the British attempted to organize their administration of Malaya into
one unit to be called the Malayan Union, strong Malay protests to what seemed
to usurp their historical claim to the territory forced the British to modify
the plan. The other crucial event was the largely Chinese communist rebellion
in 1948 that remained strong to the mid-1950s. To address Malay criticisms and
to promote counter-insurgency, the British undertook a vast range of
nation-building efforts. Local conservatives and radicals alike developed their
own attempts to foster unity among the disparate Malayan population. These grew
into the Federation of Malaya, which gained independence in 1957. In 1963, with
the addition of Singapore and the north Borneo territories, this federation
became Malaysia. Difficulties of integrating the predominately Chinese
population of Singapore into Malaysia remained, and under Malaysian directive
Singapore became an independent republic in 1965.
National Identity. Throughout
Malaysia's brief history, the shape of its national identity has been a crucial
question: should the national culture be essentially Malay, a hybrid, or separate
ethnic entities? The question reflects the tension between the indigenous
claims of the Malay population and the cultural and citizenship rights of the
immigrant groups. A tentative solution came when the Malay, Chinese, and Indian
elites who negotiated independence struck what has been called "the
bargain." Their informal deal exchanged Malay political dominance for
immigrant citizenship and unfettered economic pursuit. Some provisions of
independence were more formal, and the constitution granted several Malay
"special rights" concerning land, language, the place of the Malay
Rulers, and Islam, based on their indigenous status. Including the Borneo
territories and Singapore in Malaysia revealed the fragility of "the
bargain." Many Malays remained poor; some Chinese politicians wanted
greater political power. These fractures in Malaysian society prompted
Singapore's expulsion and produced the watershed of contemporary Malaysian
life, the May 1969 urban unrest in Kuala Lumpur. Violence left hundreds dead;
parliament was suspended for two years. As a result of this experience the
government placed tight curbs on political debate of national cultural issues
and began a comprehensive program of affirmative action for the Malay
population. This history hangs over all subsequent attempts to encourage
official integration of Malaysian society. In the 1990s a government plan to
blend the population into a single group called "Bangsa Malaysia" has
generated excitement and criticism from different constituencies of the
population. Continuing debates demonstrate that Malaysian national identity
remains unsettled.
Ethnic Relations. Malaysia's
ethnic diversity is both a blessing and a source of stress. The melange makes
Malaysia one of the most cosmopolitan places on earth, as it helps sustain
international relationships with the many societies represented in Malaysia:
the Indonesian archipelago, the Islamic world, India, China, and Europe.
Malaysians easily exchange ideas and techniques with the rest of the world, and
have an influence in global affairs. The same diversity presents seemingly
intractable problems of social cohesion, and the threat of ethnic violence adds
considerable tension to Malaysian politics.
Urbanism,
Architecture, and the Use of Space
Urban and rural divisions are reinforced by ethnic diversity with
agricultural areas populated primarily by indigenous Malays and immigrants
mostly in cities. Chinese dominance of commerce means that most towns,
especially on the west coast of the peninsula, have a central road lined by
Chinese shops. Other ethnic features influence geography: a substantial part of
the Indian population was brought in to work on the rubber plantations, and
many are still on the rural estates; some Chinese, as a part of counter-insurgency,
were rounded up into what were called "new villages." A key part of
the 1970s affirmative action policy has been to increase the number of Malays
living in the urban areas, especially Kuala Lumpur. Governmental use of Malay
and Islamic architectural aesthetics in new buildings also adds to the Malay
urban presence. Given the tensions of ethnicity, the social use of space
carries strong political dimensions. Public gatherings of five or more people
require a police permit, and a ban on political rallies successfully limits the
appearance of crowds in Malaysia. It is therefore understandable that
Malaysians mark a sharp difference between space inside the home and outside
the home, with domestic space carefully managed to receive outsiders: even many
modest dwellings have a set of chairs for guests in a front room of the house.
Food
and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Malaysia's
diversity has blessed the country with one of the most exquisite cuisines in
the world, and elements of Malay, Chinese, and Indian cooking are both distinct
and blended together. Rice and noodles are common to all cuisine; spicy dishes
are also favorites. Tropical fruits grow in abundance, and a local favorite is
the durian, known by its spiked shell and fermented flesh whose pungent aroma
and taste often separates locals from foreigners. Malaysia's affluence means that
increasing amounts of meat and processed foods supplement the country's diet,
and concerns about the health risks of their high-fat content are prominent in
the press. This increased affluence also allows Malaysians to eat outside the
home more often; small hawker stalls offer prepared food twenty-four hours a
day in urban areas. Malaysia's ethnic diversity is apparent in food
prohibitions: Muslims are forbidden to eat pork which is a favorite of the
Chinese population; Hindus do not eat beef; some Buddhists are vegetarian.
Alcohol consumption also separates non-Muslims from Muslims.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. When
Malaysians have guests they tend to be very fastidious about hospitality, and
an offer of food is a critical etiquette requirement. Tea or coffee is usually
prepared along with small snacks for visitors. These refreshments sit in front
of the guest until the host signals for them to be eaten. As a sign of
accepting the host's hospitality the guest must at least sip the beverage and
taste the food offered. These dynamics occur on a grander scale during a
holiday open house. At celebrations marking important ethnic and religious
holidays, many Malaysian families host friends and neighbors to visit and eat
holiday delicacies. The visits of people from other ethnic groups and religions
on these occasions are taken as evidence of Malaysian national amity.
Basic Economy. Malaysia
has long been integrated into the global economy. Through the early decades of
the twentieth century, the Malay peninsula was a world leader in the production
of tin (sparked by the Western demand for canned food) and natural rubber
(needed to make automobile tires). The expansion of Malaysia's
industrialization heightened its dependence on imports for food and other necessities.
Land Tenure and Property. Land
ownership is a controversial issue in Malaysia. Following the rubber boom the
British colonial government, eager to placate the Malay population, designated
portions of land as Malay reservations. Since this land could only be sold to
other Malays, planters and speculators were limited in what they could
purchase. Malay reserve land made ethnicity a state concern because land
disputes could only be settled with a legal definition of who was considered
Malay. These land tenure arrangements are still in effect and are crucial to
Malay identity. In fact the Malay claim to political dominance is that they
are bumiputera (sons of the soil). Similar struggles exist in
east Malaysia, where the land rights of indigenous groups are bitterly disputed
with loggers eager to harvest the timber for export. Due to their different
colonial heritage, indigenous groups in Sarawak and Sabah have been less
successful in maintaining their territorial claims.
Commercial Activities. Basic
necessities in Malaysia have fixed prices and, like many developing countries,
banking, retail, and other services are tightly regulated. The country's
commerce correlates with ethnicity, and government involvement has helped
Malays to compete in commercial activities long dominated by ethnic Chinese.
Liberalization of business and finance proceeds with these ethnic dynamics in
mind.
Major Industries. The
boom and bust in primary commodities such as rubber and tin have given
Malaysian society a cyclical rhythm tied to fickle external demand. In the
1970s the government began to diversify the economy (helped by an increase in
oil exports) and Malaysia is now well on its way to becoming an industrial
country. The country has a growing automotive industry, a substantial
light-manufacturing sector (textiles, air conditioners, televisions, and VCRs),
and an expanding high technology capacity (especially semi-conductors).
Trade. Malaysia's
prominent place in the global economy as one of the world's twenty largest trading
nations is an important part of its identity as a society. Primary trading
partners include Japan, Singapore, and the United States, with Malaysia
importing industrial components and exporting finished products. Palm oil,
rubber, tropical hardwoods, and petroleum products are important commodities.
Division of Labor. The
old ethnic division of labor (Malays in agriculture, Indians in the professions
and plantations, and Chinese in mining and commerce) has steadily eroded. In
its place, the Malaysian workforce is increasingly divided by class and
citizenship. Educated urban professionals fill the offices of large companies
in a multi-ethnic blend. Those without educational qualifications work in
factories, petty trade, and agricultural small holdings. As much as 20 percent
of the workforce is foreign, many from Indonesia and the Philippines, and
dominate sectors such as construction work and domestic service.
Social
Stratification
Classes and Castes. Class
position in Malaysia depends on a combination of political connections,
specialized skills, ability in English, and family money. The Malaysian elite,
trained in overseas universities, is highly cosmopolitan and continues to grow
in dominance as Malaysia's middle class expands. Even with the substantial
stratification of society by ethnicity, similar class experiences in business
and lifestyle are bridging old barriers.
Symbols of Social Stratification. In
Malaysia's market economy, consumption provides the primary symbols of
stratification. Newly wealthy Malaysians learn how to consume by following the
lead of the Malay royalty and the prosperous business families of Chinese
descent. A mobile phone, gold jewelry, and fashionable clothing all indicate
one's high rank in the Malaysian social order. Given the striking mobility of
Malaysian society, one's vehicle marks class position even more than home
ownership. Most Malaysians can distinguish the difference between makes of
cars, and access to at least a motor scooter is a requirement for participation
in contemporary Malaysian social life. Kuala Lumpur has more motor vehicles
than people. Skin color, often indicative of less or more time working in the
hot tropical sun, further marks class position. Distinct class differences also
appear in speech. Knowledge of English is vital to elevated class status, and a
person's fluency in that language indexes their social background.
Political
Life
Government. Malaysia's
government is nominally headed by the king whose position rotates among the
nine hereditary Malay rulers every five years. The king selects the prime
minister from the leading coalition in parliament, a body which is further divided
into the elected representatives of the Dewan Rakyat and the appointed senators
of the Dewan Negara. Since independence Malaysian national elections have been
won by a coalition of ethnic-based political parties. Known first as the Alliance,
and, following the 1969 unrest, as the National Front, this coalition is itself
dominated by the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), a party composed
of Malay moderates. UMNO rule is aided by the gerrymandered parliamentary
districts that over-represent rural Malay constituencies. The UMNO president
has always become Malaysia's prime minister, so the two thousand delegates at
the biannual UMNO General Assembly are the real electoral force in the country,
choosing the party leadership that in turn leads the country.
Leadership and Political Officials. Malaysian
political leaders demand a great deal of deference from the public. The Malay
term for government, kerajaan, refers to the raja who
ruled from the precolonial courts. High-ranking politicians are referred to
as yang berhormat (he who is honored), and sustain remarkable
resiliency in office. Their longevity is due to the fact that successful
politicians are great patrons, with considerable influence over the allocation
of social benefits such as scholarships, tenders, and permits. Clients, in
return, show deference and give appropriate electoral support. The mainstream
press are also among the most consistent and most important boosters of the
ruling coalition's politicians.
Even with the substantial power of the political elite, corruption
remains informal, and one can negotiate the lower levels of the state
bureaucracy without paying bribes. However, endless stories circulate of how
appropriate payments can oil a sometimes creaky process.
Social Problems and Control. Through
its colonial history, British Malaya had one of the largest per capita police
forces of all British colonies. Police power increased during the communist
rebellion (the "Emergency") begun in 1948, which was fought primarily
as a police action. The Emergency also expanded the influence of the police
Special Branch intelligence division. Malaysia retains aspects of a police
state. Emergency regulations for such things as detention without trial (called
the Internal Security Act) remain in use; the police are a federal rather than
local institution; and police quarters (especially in more isolated rural
areas) still have the bunker-like design necessary for confronting an armed
insurgency. Even in urban areas police carry considerable firepower. Officers
with M-16s are not a rarity and guards at jewelry shops often have long-barrel
shotguns. Criminals tend to be audacious given the fact that possession of an
illegal firearm carries a mandatory death sentence. Since the police focus more
on protecting commercial than residential property, people in housing estates
and rural areas will sometimes apprehend criminals themselves. The most
elaborate crime network is composed of Chinese triads who extend back in
lineage to the colonial period. Malaysia is close to the opium producing areas
of the "Golden Triangle" where Burma, Thailand, and Laos meet. Drug
possession carries a mandatory death sentence.
Military Activity. The
Malaysian military's most striking characteristic is that, unlike its
neighbors, there has never been a military coup in the country. One reason is
the important social function of the military to insure Malay political
dominance. The highest ranks of the military are composed of ethnic Malays, as
are a majority of those who serve under them. The military's controversial role
in establishing order following the May 1969 urban rebellion further emphasizes
the political function of the institution as one supporting the Malay-dominated
ruling coalition. The Malaysian armed forces, though small in number, have been
very active in United Nations peace-keeping, including the Congo, Namibia,
Somalia, and Bosnia.
Social
Welfare and Change Programs
The Malaysian government has promoted rapid social change to integrate
a national society from its ethnic divisions. Its grandest program was
originally called the New Economic Policy (NEP), implemented between 1971 and
1990 and continued in modified form as the National Development Policy (NDP).
Since poverty eradication was an aim of the NEP a considerable amount
of energy has gone to social welfare efforts. The consequences of these
programs disseminate across the social landscape: home mortgages feature two
rates, a lower one for Malays and a higher one for others; university admissions
promote Malay enrollment; mundane government functions such as allocating
hawker licenses have an ethnic component. But the government has also tried to
ethnically integrate Malaysia's wealthy class; therefore many NEP-inspired
ethnic preferences have allowed prosperous Malays to accrue even greater
wealth. The dream of creating an affluent Malaysia continues in the
government's 1991 plan of Vision 2020, which projects that the country will be
"fully developed" by the year 2020. This new vision places faith in
high technology, including the creation of a "Multi-Media Super
Corridor" outside of Kuala Lumpur, as the means for Malaysia to join the
ranks of wealthy industrialized countries, and to develop a more unified
society.
Nongovernmental
Organizations and Other Associations
Through its welfare policies the government jealously guards its
stewardship over social issues, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) work
under its close surveillance. The state requires that all associations be
registered, and failure to register can effectively cripple an organization.
NGO life is especially active in urban areas, addressing problems peripheral to
the state's priorities of ethnic redistribution and rapid industrialization.
Many prominent NGOs are affiliated with religious organizations, and others
congregate around issues of the environment, gender and sexuality, worker's
rights, and consumers' interests.
Gender
Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Malaysia's
affluence has changed the gender divide in the public sphere of work while maintaining
the gendered division of labor in the household. Most conspicuous among the new
developments are the burgeoning factories that employ legions of women workers
on the assembly lines. Domestic labor is a different matter, with cooking and
cleaning still deemed to be female responsibilities. In wealthier families
where both men and women work outside the home there has been an increase in
hiring domestic servants. Since Malaysian women have other opportunities,
nearly all of this domestic work goes to female foreign maids.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Generally
men have more power than women in Malaysian society. Male dominance is codified
in laws over such things as the guardianship of children. The top politicians,
business leaders, and religious practitioners are predominately male. Yet
Malaysian society shows considerable suppleness in its gender divisions with
prominent women emerging in many different fields. Most of the major political
parties have an active women's wing which provides access to political power.
Though opportunities for men and women differ by ethnic group and social class,
strict gender segregation has not been a part of modern Malaysian life.
Marriage,
Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Even
with significant changes in marriage practices, weddings reveal the sharp
differences in Malaysian society. There are two ways to marry: registering the
union with the government; and joining in marriage before a religious
authority. Christian Malaysians may marry Buddhists or Hindus answering only to
their families and beliefs; Muslim Malaysians who marry non-Muslims risk
government sanction unless their partner converts to Islam. Marriage practices
emphasize Malaysia's separate ethnic customs. Indians and Chinese undertake
divination rites in search of compatibility and auspicious dates, while Malays
have elaborate gift exchanges. Malay wedding feasts are often held in the home,
and feature a large banquet with several dishes eaten over rice prepared in oil
(to say one is going to eat oiled rice means that a wedding is imminent). Many
Chinese weddings feature a multiple-course meal in a restaurant or public hall,
and most Indian ceremonies include intricate rituals. Since married partners
join families as well as individuals, the meeting between prospective in-laws
is crucial to the success of the union. For most Malaysians marriage is a
crucial step toward adulthood. Although the average age for marriage continues
to increase, being single into one's thirties generates concern for families
and individuals alike. The social importance of the institution makes
interethnic marriage an issue of considerable stress.
Domestic Unit. Malaysian
households have undergone a tremendous transformation following the changes in
the economy. The shift from agricultural commodities to industrial production
has made it difficult for extended families to live together. Yet as family
mobility expands, as a result of modern schedules, efforts to maintain kin ties
also increase. Improved telecommunications keep distant kin in contact, as does
the efficient transportation network. A dramatic example of this occurs on the
major holidays when millions return to hometowns for kin reunions.
Inheritance. The
critical issue of inheritance is land. With the importance Malays place on land
ownership, it is rarely viewed as a commodity for sale, and the numerous empty
houses that dot the Malaysian landscape are testament to their absentee-owners
unwillingness to sell. Gold is also a valuable inheritance; Malaysians from all
groups readily turn extra cash into gold as a form of insurance for the future.
Kin Groups. The
crucial kin distinctions in Malaysian culture are between ethnic groups, which
tend to limit intermarriage. Among the majority of Malays, kin groups are more
horizontal than vertical, meaning that siblings are more important than
ancestors. Those considered Malay make appropriate marriage partners;
non-Malays do not. These distinctions are somewhat flexible, however, and those
that embrace Islam and follow Malay customs are admitted as potential Malay
marriage partners. Greater flexibility in kinship practices also appears among
immigrant groups amid the fresh possibilities created by diasporic life. A
striking example is the Baba community, Chinese who immigrated prior to British
rule and intermarried with locals, developing their own hybrid language and
cultural style. These dynamics point to the varied kinship arrangements
possible between the different ethnic communities in Malaysian society.
Socialization
Infant Care. Malaysian
babies are lavished with considerable care. Most are born in hospitals, though
midwives still provide their services in more remote areas. Careful
prohibitions are rigidly followed for both the infant and the mother, according
to the various cultural customs. New mothers wear special clothes, eat foods to
supplement their strength, and refrain from performing tasks that might bring
bad luck to their babies. Grandmothers often live with their new grandchildren
for the first few months of their new life.
Child Rearing and Education. Malaysian
child rearing practices and educational experiences sustain the differences
among the population. Most Malaysian children learn the importance of age
hierarchy, especially the proper use of titles to address their elders. The
family also teaches that kin are the appropriate source of friendly
companionship. The frequent presence of siblings and cousins provides
familiarity with the extended family and a preferred source of playmates. In
turn, many families teach that strangers are a source of suspicion. The school
experience reinforces the ethnic differences in the population, since the schools
are divided into separate systems with Malay-medium, Mandarin-medium, and
Tamil-medium instruction. Yet the schools do provide common experiences, the
most important of which is measuring progress by examination, which helps to
emphasize mastery of accumulated knowledge as the point of education. Outside
of school, adolescents who mix freely with others or spend significant time
away from home are considered "social," a disparaging remark that
suggests involvement in illicit activity. A good Malaysian child respects.hierarchy,
stays close to kin, follows past examples, and is demure among strangers. These
lessons teach Malaysian children how to fit into a diverse society.
Higher Education. Higher
education is a vital part of Malaysian life, though the universities that are
the most influential in the society are located outside the country. Hundreds
of thousands of students have been educated in Britain, Australia, and the
United States; the experience of leaving Malaysia for training abroad is an
important rite of passage for many of the elite. Malaysia boasts a growing
local university system that supplements the foreign universities. The quality
of local faculty, often higher than that of the second- and third-tier foreign
universities that many Malaysians attend, is rarely sufficient to offset the
cachet of gaining one's degree abroad.
Etiquette
Malaysian society is remarkable due to its openness to diversity. The
blunders of an outsider are tolerated, a charming dividend of Malaysia's
cosmopolitan heritage. Yet this same diversity can present challenges for
Malaysians when interacting in public. Because there is no single dominant
cultural paradigm, social sanctions for transgressing the rights of others are
reduced. Maintaining public facilities is a source of constant public concern,
as is the proper etiquette for driving a motor vehicle. Malaysian sociability instead
works through finding points of connection. When Malaysians meet strangers,
they seek to fit them into a hierarchy via guesses about one's religion
(Muslims use the familiar Arabic greetings only to other Muslims); inquiries
into one's organization (as an initial question many Malaysians will ask,
"who are you attached to?"); and estimations of age (unknown older
men are addressed by the honorific "uncle," women as
"auntie" in the appropriate language). Strangers shake hands, and
handshaking continues after the first meeting (Malays often raise the hand to
their heart after shaking), though it is sometimes frowned upon between men and
women. Greetings are always expressed with the right hand, which is the
dominant hand in Malaysian life. Since the left hand is used to cleanse the
body, it is considered inappropriate for use in receiving gifts, giving money,
pointing directions, or passing objects.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. Nearly
all the world religions, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity
are present in Malaysia. Religion correlates strongly with ethnicity, with most
Muslims Malay, most Hindus Indian, and most Buddhists Chinese. The presence of
such diversity heightens the importance of religious identity, and most
Malaysians have a strong sense of how their religious practice differs from
that of others (therefore a Malaysian Christian also identifies as a
non-Muslim). Religious holidays, especially those celebrated with open houses,
further blend the interreligious experience of the population. Tension between
religious communities is modest. The government is most concerned with the
practices of the Muslim majority, since Islam is the official religion (60
percent of the population is Muslim). Debates form most often over the government's
role in religious life, such as whether the state should further promote Islam
and Muslim practices (limits on gambling, pork-rearing, availability of
alcohol, and the use of state funds for building mosques) or whether greater
religious expression for non-Muslims should be allowed.
Religious Practitioners. The
government regulates religious policy for Malaysia's Muslims, while the local
mosque organizes opportunities for religious instruction and expression.
Outside these institutions, Islam has an important part in electoral politics
as Malay parties promote their Muslim credentials. Hindu, Christian, and
Buddhist clergy often have a presence in Malaysian life through cooperative
ventures, and their joint work helps to ameliorate their minority status.
Religious missionaries work freely proselytizing to non-Muslims, but
evangelists interested in converting Muslims are strictly forbidden by the
state.
Rituals and Holy Places. Malaysia's
most prominent holy place is the National Mosque, built in the heart of Kuala
Lumpur in 1965. Its strategic position emphasizes the country's Islamic
identity. Countrywide, the daily call to prayer from the mosques amplifies the
rhythm of Islamic rituals in the country, as does the procession of the
faithful to fulfill their prayers. Reminders of prayer times are included in
television programs and further highlight the centrality of Islam in Malaysia.
Important holidays include the birth of the Prophet and the pilgrimage to
Mecca, all of which hold a conspicuous place in the media. The month of
fasting, Ramadan, includes acts of piety beyond the customary refraining from
food and drink during daylight hours and is followed by a great celebration.
Non-Muslim religious buildings, practices, and holidays have a smaller public
life in Malaysia. Part of this is due to fewer believers in the country, and
part is due to public policy which limits the building of churches and temples
along with the broadcasting of non-Muslim religious services. The important
non-Muslim holidays include Christmas, Deepavali (the Hindu festival of light),
and Wesak day (which celebrates the life of the Buddha). The Hindu holiday of
Thaipussam merits special attention, because devotees undergo spectacular rites
of penance before vast numbers of spectators, most dramatically at the famous
Batu Caves, located in the bluffs outside of Kuala Lumpur.
Death and the Afterlife. Malaysians
have a strong interest in the metaphysical, and stories about spirits and
ghosts whether told in conversation, read in books, or seen on television gain
rapt attention. Many of these stories sustain a relationship with people who
have passed away, whether as a form of comfort or of fear. Cemeteries,
including vast fields of Chinese tombs marked with family characters and Muslim
graves with the distinctive twin stones, are sites of mystery. The real estate
that surrounds them carries only a modest price due to the reputed dangers of
living nearby. Muslim funerals tend to be community events, and an entire
neighborhood will gather at the home of the deceased to prepare the body for
burial and say the requisite prayers. Corpses are buried soon after death,
following Muslim custom, and mourners display a minimum of emotion lest they
appear to reject the divine's decision. The ancestor memorials maintained by
Chinese clans are a common site in Malaysia, and the familiar small red shrines
containing offerings of oranges and joss sticks appear on neighborhood street
corners and in the rear of Chinese-owned shops. Faith in the efficacy of the
afterlife generates considerable public respect for religious graves and
shrines even from non-adherents.
Medicine
and Health Care
Malaysia boasts a sophisticated system of modern health care with
doctors trained in advanced biomedicine. These services are concentrated in the
large cities and radiate out in decreasing availability. Customary
practitioners, including Chinese herbalists and Malay healers, supplement the
services offered in clinics and hospitals and boast diverse clientele.
Secular
Celebrations
Given the large number of local and religious holidays observed in
Malaysia, few national secular celebrations fit into the calendar. Two important
ones include the king's birthday, and the nation's independence day, 31 August.
The strong Malaysian interest in sports makes victories for the national team,
especially in badminton, a cause for revelry.
The
Arts and the Humanities
Support for the Arts. Public
support for the arts is meager. Malaysian society for the past century has been
so heavily geared toward economic development that the arts have suffered, and
many practitioners of Malaysia's aesthetic traditions mourn the lack of
apprentices to carry them on. The possibility exists for a Malaysian arts
renaissance amid the country's growing affluence.
Literature. The
pre-colonial Malay rulers supported a rich variety of literary figures who
produced court chronicles, fables, and legends that form a prominent part of
the contemporary Malaysian cultural imagination. Developing a more contemporary
national literature has been a struggle because of language, with controversies
over whether Malaysian fiction should be composed solely in Malay or in other
languages as well. Though adult literacy is nearly 90 percent, the well-read
newspapers lament that the national belief in the importance of reading is
stronger than the practice.
Graphic Arts. A
small but vibrant group of graphic artists are productive in Malaysia.
Practitioners of batik, the art of painting textiles with wax followed by dying
to bring out the pattern, still work in northern peninsular Malaysia.
Batik-inspired designs are often produced in factories on shirts, sarongs,
table cloths, or dresses forming an iconic Malaysian aesthetic.
Performance Arts. Artistic
performance in Malaysia is limited by the state's controls over public assembly
and expression. The requirement that the government approve all scripts
effectively limits what might be said in plays, films, and television. The
preferred performance genre in Malaysia is popular music, and concerts of the
top Malay pop singers have great followings in person and on television.
Musical stars from Bombay and Hong Kong also have substantial numbers of very
committed fans, whose devotion makes Malaysia an overseas stop on the tours of
many performers. The favorite Malaysian entertainment medium is television, as
most homes have television sets. Malaysians watch diverse programming: the
standard export American fare, Japanese animation, Hong Kong martial arts,
Hindi musicals, and Malay drama. The advent of the video cassette and the
Internet was made for Malaysia's diverse society, allowing Malaysians to make
expressive choices that often defeat the state's censorship.
The
State of the Physical and Social Sciences
Given the Malaysian government's considerable support for rapid
industrialization, scientific research is high on the list of its priorities. Malaysian
universities produce sophisticated research, though they are sapped for funds
by the huge expenditure of sending students overseas for their degrees.
Malaysian scientists have made substantial contributions in rubber and palm oil
research, and this work will likely continue to increase the productivity of
these sectors. Government monitoring of social science research increases the
risks of critical scholarship though some academicians are quite outspoken and
carry considerable prestige in society.
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